Understanding Preparedness

The fourth part in our series on building a national disaster template focuses on the second phase of disaster management - preparedness. In the last issue of The Liaison, we discussed mitigation, describing that phase as the foundation of emergency management. Also, we highlighted the fact that countries are constantly moving in and out of the four phases - mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. On the disaster continuum, each phase is re-evaluated as it moves into the next phase against its affect on the capacity and capabilities of the community. This cyclical process also ensures that the ability of the community to prepare for disaster doesn't wane between disasters, a time when urgency for preparedness typically diminishes.

Preparedness activities build partnerships with the whole community so that they are ready for effects that cannot be eliminated beforehand, as well as those events unanticipated. Disasters affect the whole society and, thus, everyone in that society should be prepared. In order for the society to recover successfully, the participation of everyone in the community is vital. Preparedness activities do not just occur naturally, nor are there universal truths that make one particular course of action the exact right thing to do each and every time. Therefore, the success of preparedness depends greatly on the capability of the leadership to make decisions that are binding, to arbitrate conflicts, to obtain funding or resources to complete preparedness activities, and to devote the time necessary to manage the overall process. Leadership may be the civilian head of government (mayor, governor), military leader (national guard, civil defense), religious (pastor, elders), or any other group that has legitimacy and authority in the community.

Whoever leads such activities must ensure that all corners of society are included in the process. Commercial associations and the business community have economic concerns about the consequences of a disaster and can be a source of cash or in-kind resources for preparedness actions. Civil services such as local transport, utilities, medical and health services, emergency services, and police and fire departments have specialized skills and mandates that keep the community running. Humanitarian and/or volunteer groups such as the Red Cross, Neighborhood Watch programs, Civic Associations, Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts, play an important role in supplying immediate manpower for the response and, thus, play important roles in preparedness training and education. Community institutions such as hospitals and schools are excellent locations for holding training: they house personnel that often play very active roles in the response.

Even if they are not in the leadership role for preparedness coordination, government agencies are an important part of preparedness. Zoning laws, safety regulations, and the like, are the responsibility of government in the mitigation phase. Only the government, through official channels, can call for the application of regional or national assets. Preparedness involves the creation of a mechanism for fast and effective action. Labor unions and other professional groups, such as the Rotary Club, can mobilize people and other resources quickly and in an organized manner. The media informs the public as to what preparedness activities are available, who has what roles and responsibilities, and where and how to find out more information. Finally, each citizen within the community can contribute resources in the form of skills, funds, labor, etc., that fit tightly within the preparedness package. No sector of society can be left out if preparedness is to be efficient and effective.

Once leadership roles have been established, coordination structures and mechanisms must be defined and implemented. There may be legal implications, but this is what preparedness is about - sorting out and establishing mechanisms now so that when the disaster hits, there is an efficient, effective response that allows the community to begin the recovery phase as soon as possible. Training and education requirements are identified in the preparedness phase and the leaders of the community effort determine the priorities for action.

Preparedness is truly a process that is built starting from the ground-up. Identifying the communities' priorities, needs, and requirements based on the most likely disaster event should be the role of the Disaster Committee, a group composed of key members of the community who will be responsible for developing and implementing the disaster plan. What are the main concerns? What are the training needs based on the most likely event or events? As the preparedness plan is developed, the community plan is handed off, up to the regional or state plan, and eventually leading to a National Disaster Preparedness Plan. Each level of the plan should only reflect on those shortfalls or support areas of the level below it. For example, a city may have a police force of sufficient numbers to serve the community's protection needs under normal circumstances. A tornado passes through the city and due to the emergency that ensues there is a shortfall of law enforcement. The county, state or province sends additional police officers to support law and order in the city. If that is still not sufficient, then the national authority may send in the National Guard, or some type of federal or national troops. From this example, one can also draw simple conclusions regarding training requirements. As a supplement to the local police force, the National Guard would not have to train to function as city police officers but they would need to have law enforcement training in the broadest sense, with the goal of supporting the needs of the local police. This requirement translates into a need for mechanisms that facilitate the entrance and exit of the disaster area by these normally 'foreign' personnel in a manner that will minimally disrupt the local infrastructure. Jurisdictions that cross community/state/provincial lines, command/control issues, and other such topics should be outlined in the Disaster Preparedness Plan and those responsible should be trained accordingly.

While the structure of response is developing and personnel are educated and trained on their roles and responsibilities within each mechanism, hazard analyses should coincidently be carried out to determine which disasters are most likely to occur and what their potential impact will be on the community. The next step is to prioritize the hazard analyses' results into education and training requirements. A comparison should be done of current or planned capacities with real or likely disaster events. Because no community can be expected to be prepared 100% at all times, the prioritization of activities will also allow for county, state or provincial planners to identify which activities they will likely be called on to fill - and those should be what the local community has listed as its lowest priorities. Why? Because the goal is to develop capacities such that the local community will be in a position to meet its own highest priority needs. In our discussion of the cyclical nature of emergency preparedness, it follows that preparedness activities would change as more personnel are educated and trained, mechanisms are put into place, and mitigation efforts move a particular event further down on the priority list. And it is important that all these activities be continually reevaluated.

As an example from one model, extracted from the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) documents, listed below are emergency functions that should be addressed during the preparedness plan development.

1. Warning

2. Communications

3. Evacuations

4. Shelter and Mass Care

5. Firefighting

6. Law enforcement

7. Search and rescue

8. Emergency Public Information

9. Resource management

10. Direction and Control

11. Transportation

12. Radiological protection

13. Donation management

14. Health and medical services

15. Recovery

16. Hazard mitigation

From the list, one can see that each of these activities fall within the normal responsibilities of a particular community agency. The education and training needs inherent in meeting a function listed above during a disaster would augment current skill sets for personnel in that agency. For example, transportation issues during a disaster will fall under the purview of the agency that normally handles transportation issues within the community under normal circumstances.

Unfortunately, in today's world the threat of terrorist activities such as biological, chemical, and nuclear events is very real. Personnel are being required to learn entirely new skills, making preparedness a more expensive and longer-term investment. Some communities continue to only concentrate on the basic disaster hazards, having made the decision that if a terrorist event happens they will rely mostly on national authorities for the response.

Facilities, equipment, and other resources should be dedicated to the emergency management team in order to coordinate not only the preparedness activities but also the actual response during a disaster. Obviously, not all communities have the luxury of dedicating a full stock of equipment, funds, and other items solely for disaster preparedness. What can be done, though, is that the community can develop partnerships with retailers, wholesalers, private and public parties, and so on, that agree to make available - for payment or donation - equipment sufficient to meet the priority needs. For example, a city may estimate the need to shelter up to 15,000 people given the most likely disaster scenario. In order to do that, the city will require housing, basic personal items, and rations for approximately 5,000-6,000 families, plus several thousand individuals. The city can then issue a bid for suppliers to make available 15,000 blankets and 10,000 kitchen sets (pots, pans, plates, cups, silverware). The stipulation is that the winner of the bid would keep those amounts on hand for a period of two years after which a new bid would be issued, but the city would not be obligated to purchase any the products within the two-year period. The supplier would benefit by having the exclusive contract in the event of the city did require purchasing the items within the contract period and the price of the bid would include the storage, inflation, etc. of the products. In the event that the original supplier can't fill its quota, other suppliers would be invited to participate too, but at the winning bid price. The city meets its fiscal responsibility to the community by opening the bid to several suppliers, thus keeping prices lower than they would be if the negotiation for urgent items were attempted after the disaster struck, during the crisis phase. As an additional benefit, the local planners are in a better position to order exact or more appropriate items, in sufficient quantities, than having to accept whatever is donated during the actual event. This method also draws more of the community members into the preparedness partnership.

Another important part of preparedness is the validation of the emergency plan and the training provided. To determine the efficiency and efficacy of the response activities, a series of exercises should be conducted both internally to specific agencies and organizations, and externally across agencies. The exercise can take the form of a simple tabletop case study, or a full-scale exercise using all relevant equipment and personnel. Some of the exercises are going to be refresher courses for personnel to update them on the newest techniques or to practice techniques not normally performed. Another kind of exercise would be a case study that allows the exercise participants to re-examine the issues relating to their role and responsibilities in the disaster. Simulators allow personnel to work on timing in live event scenarios without deploying equipment to the field. Finally, a full-scale exercise allows all participants in the response to work on their specific skills in a real-time event in a real setting using the exact equipment and mechanisms they would be using during a live event. Each type of exercise mentioned above has costs and benefits associated with holding it that will help to determine the frequency and practicality of its use.

As the preparedness plan is developed and personnel are trained, the community at large needs to be continually informed of what is expected of them and their input needs to be solicited. The partnership requires this. Frequently during a disaster, the community brings skills, equipment, funds, and facilities to bear on the problem. Unfortunately, many times these resources are wasted or, worse, are not utilized because no one in charge of the response was aware that the resource existed. People are usually very generous when asked to provide assistance to their own community and neighbors. Getting the community involved can be very cost-effective. Taking this generosity into account through partnering ahead of time, planners could then limit community resource requirements to only those complete shortfalls. In other situations it could rely on the use of community public and private assets.

Finally, the media is capable of making the community aware not only of the emergency plans, but also the requirements, shortfalls, and priorities in a disaster. Including the media as a partner in preparedness also enhances their own awareness of the system, their ability to report exact requirements, and to report the situation accurately, guiding others to respond much more efficiently.

In the next edition, we'll look at emergency response. Any comments regarding this article and/or future articles on disaster management can be addressed to the editor of The Liaison at pr@coe-dmha.org.

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